AN OVERVIEW OF NATURAL SOURCES AND SYNTHETIC APPROACHES OF INDIRUBIN

Abstract

Indirubin is the key active component of two traditional Chinese medicinal formulations, Danggui Longhui Wan and Qingdai. Since the 1980s, indirubin has been used in clinical practice to treat chronic myelocytic leukemia (CML). However, due to its limited pharmacokinetic properties and efficacy, numerous indirubin derivatives have been designed and synthesized to enhance its pharmacological profiles. The aim of this review was to provide a comprehensive summary of the natural and synthetic sources of indirubin and its derivatives. Our investigation revealed that indirubin-based compounds can be extracted from a variety of plants, mollusks, and recombinant bacteria. Additionally, indirubin derivatives can be synthesized by biological and chemical pathways, with isatin and indole derivatives serving as starting materials. Among them, the enzyme-based method shows promise for industrial production of indirubins in the foreseeable future.